Abandoned: 14^th century A.D.

Location: Southwestern Anatolia

Periods: Roman Republican to High Medieval

Material: Marble, travertine, calcite alabaster, and polychromatic breccia

Hierapolis is the ancient Greek Holy City, surrounded by the unreal landscape of Pamukkale in southwestern Anatolia. It is referred to as Holy City in archaeological terms due to the abundance of religious buildings and temples discovered there. Situated about 20 km north of Denizli, the ancient city is said to be located near several historic areas including Laodicea and Tripolis which was in Kario’s Border. The name Hierapolis is given to the city because of its Mother goddess Cult.

Although the information about Hierapolis is still unclear, it is known in history that the city was founded in 190 BC by the king of Pergamum, Eumenes II. The name of the city was inspired by the Amazon’s Queen Hiera, the wife of Telephos, the founder of Pergamum.

However, Hierapolis was struck with an earthquake and was destroyed in 60 A.D. during the reign of the Roman Emperor Nero. Following this event, the city was reconstructed but unfortunately lost its Hellenistic Style and became a typical Roman City. It became a commercial and religious centre and gained importance due to its position. In the 12th century A.D., the Turks conquered Hierapolis. Eventually, it became a Christian city when a church was founded there through the guidance of Apostle Paul while he resided at Ephesus. This is mentioned in the New Testament, according to Colossian 4:13.

Some of the well-known ruins of this ancient Holy City include the South Byzantine Gate, Building with Triron Fountain, Ionic House, Latrina, Apollon Temple, Middle Age Fortress, City Walls, Theatre, St. Philip’s Martyrium, Churches and the Great Bath Complex.

The primary building materials that are used in the monuments are marble, travertine, calcite alabaster and polychromatic breccia. White, white-veined and grey marble has been used widely throughout the city. This can be seen in the walls of the Middle Age Fortress where blocks of marble were used that contained inscriptions. It is suspected that the inner walls of the Great Bath Complex were also covered with marble through the markings that the stone has left behind.

Similarly, many monumental structures present show signs or remains of marble and other building materials that were commonly used for construction at the time. These stones were widely available in the areas surrounding the city, where they were quarried in excessive quantities.

Polished
Natural stones are polished through the application of abrasive material by polish heads that gradually are changed from coarse to fine. This technique brings out the colour and properties of the polished natural stone.

Natural
A natural finish implies the absence of treatment. It is used exactly as it is extracted, leaving the finish as natural as possible. This finish is mostly used for cladding and cobblestones.

Aged
This treatment involves vibrating the surface of the stone to mimic ageing. Although there are many methods used to go about this treatment, generally all of them lead to a soft surface.

Tumbled
Tumbled is also an ageing treatment to achieve an antique finish. In this case, a vibrating drum-like machine uses finer, more resistant stones, to wear out the surface of the natural stone. This leaves an aged finish and generates a soft surface.

Bush Hammered
This finish is achieved by hitting the surface of the natural stone with a tool called bush hammer. It generates an uneven surface creating craters of different sizes. Through this method, the surface becomes slip-resistant and is used ideally for dense traffic areas.

Sand Blasted
This finish falls in the same category as bush hammered. The surface of the natural stone is blasted with small silica particles using an air gun. This creates little craters on its surface, highlighting the colour of the stone and creating a more slip-resistant finish.

Mushroom
This finish is generally achieved by manual tools which through controlled blows, chip the surface of the natural stone. This creates a rustic appearance, enhancing the texture and irregularities.

Leather
This is achieved by brushing the surface of the natural stone by various brushes. This results in a surface which is soft, warm and smooth to the touch. Very few stones can be treated using this method, including granite.

Flamed
This is done by exposing the surface of the stone to a high-temperature flame. This creates roughness and makes it suitable to withstand exterior use.

Sawn
This is achieved using a diamond disc tooth saw. The surface of the stone is sawn to create a rough and irregular finish. This makes the overall stone lighter and gives it a non-glossy finish. It is generally used for external paving, steps, pathways, driveways and patios.

What is natural stone? It is a stone that is dug up from the earth and is mainly quarried from a mountainous ground. There are many types of natural stones, including slate, granite, limestone, basalt, quartzite, marble, sandstone and travertine etc. The aesthetics and characteristics of natural stone are defined by the process of its formation, e.g. from rivers, from volcanoes, from tectonic folding. Each type of stone is unique as no two places on earth have the same exact geological forces. This also means that the same kind of stone from different areas can differ widely.

The three main processes that natural stone go through in the field of architecture and construction are quarrying, processing and applying.

Quarrying

The process of quarrying is defined as the extraction of these natural stone from the surface of the earth. It is done through different equipment’s and methods, e.g. hand-held tools, explosives and power saws. Hand tools are used when the stone lies in an easily accessible area. The main hand tools are the drill, hammer and wedge. A row of holes is made through the drill and wedges are places within these holes. These wedges are hit with the hammer until it forces the stone to crack along the drilled row of holes. This method is known as the plug and feathers. Explosives and power saws are commonly used for detaching large stone blocks which are then broken down into smaller pieces through the plug and feather method.

Processing

After quarrying the natural stone is in the form of slabs. The slabs can be made of a dimension by sawing. There are many natural stone saws that include diamond-covered blade, gang sawing, straight saw blades and various circular saws. After sawing the next step is to polish the surface of the stone. This is done by using different polish heads, starting from coarse and then slowly moving onto more finer grit abrasives until the surface of the stone is glossy and polished. This way, the stones‘ natural texture and the colour are enhanced. Other than this, there are many stone finishes that can be done, including chiselling, sandblasting or heat and flame treatment.

Application

Natural stone is extensively used in the construction industry. Their characteristics have made them one of the most favourite construction materials for humans since many thousands of years. Owing to this, its application has always been diverse. Since many years natural stones were traditionally used in masonry, decoration, indoor flooring, roofing etc. The use of them in veneering for stone wall cladding and facades is an element of modern architecture which has evolved from traditional masonry.

Travertine Classic Vein-cut
The travertine vein-cut has a dark decorative pattern that is also known as veinage in engineering jargon. Also, the vein-cut travertine defines a heavy background that is filled with natural elements. This kind of appearance results from the application of a direct sawn technique which brings out the natural vein in the cut itself. The travertine vein-cut creates a stunning effect on interior decorations and applications. Vein-cut is also the most well-known variation of travertine and presents a natural parallel vein with holes found throughout its surface, a pattern that sets travertine apart from other natural stones used in construction.

Travertine Crosscut
The travertine cross-cut, on the other hand, is attained when the blocks are carved in favour of the vein. This technique means that the natural vein disappears from view and the result is a uniform surface that is exposed by a combination of light and dark emulsified sections. These light and dark layers showcase the varying hues of travertine and tend to have a much softer feel than the vein-cut due to the flowery impressions the sawn bring out in the cross-cut.

Unlike marble tiles, which have a high vulnerability to water damage due to their slippery surface, Travertine has a distinctly non-slip texture that makes it easy to grip and walk on. Travertine tiles are also quite resilient against extreme temperatures. Travertine tiles have perfectly square edges, which allow them to be installed seamlessly in outdoor floorings for a clean look.

Although Travertine is a naturally robust stone, a Travertine tile is susceptible to damage over the years just like a marble tile. However, removing and replacing a broken or damaged tile is easy if you are using natural Travertine. While Travertine tiles are stylish, versatile, durable and long-lasting, they are generally heavier than most natural stone tiles, such as marble tiles. Travertine tiles can also be relatively more expensive than their marble counterparts. Being naturally porous, tiles fashioned from Travertine can begin to show some signs of wear and tear after a while.

Architect: Paul Abadie (originally)

Completed: 1914

Height: 83m

Length: 85m

Width: 35m

Material: Travertine from Château-Landon

The decision to construct the Sacré-Cœur Basilica was not only a religious one: Building a church was a symbol of the belief that the loss of France in the war against the Prussians in 1870 was a moral condemnation of the sins of Paris.

A competition was conducted, and the goal was to build an imposing Basilica true to Christian traditions. The winner was an architect named Paul Abadie, who designed the Basilica in the Roman-Byzantine style. Construction started in 1875, and Abadie was the lead architect until his death in 1884, after which Lucien Magne took over.

Owing to the Basilica located on the Montmartre hill, it overlooks the city of Paris. The highest point of Sacré-Cœur is higher than the tallest point of the Eiffel Tower, making it one of the most noticeable landmarks in Paris.

Even in such a city with an abundance of air pollution, the Basilica has managed to keep its pure white colour. This is mainly credited to the use of Château-Landon stones, which were used for its construction. When this stone reacts with rainfall, the calcite content acts like a bleacher.

Die sogenannte Mohs Härteskala ist eine Skala von 1 bis 10, wobei Steine mit höherem Härtegrad jene mit niedrigerem kratzen und ritzen können. Es ist also eine relative, keine absolute Skala.

Als härtester Stein gilt bekanntlich der Diamant mit einem Härtegrad von 10, aber wie sieht es mit jenen Steinen aus, die man üblicherweise für Fliesen, Fassaden o.ä. verwendet?

Marmor ist beispielsweise ein relativ weicher Stein – was ihn natürlich auch für Bildhauer beliebt macht, nebst seiner vielfältigen Einsatzmöglichkeiten im Bau- und Wohnbereich. Marmor hat in etwa einen Härtegrad von 3. Damit ist er gerade einmal härter als Gips oder Alabaster und kann auch mit Messing- oder Kupfermünzen geritzt werden. Auch Travertin hat einen Härtegrad von 3! Generell haben Kalksteine in der Regel eine Mohs Härte von 3, manchmal 4.

Basalt hingegen ist ein deutlich härterer Stein: Er erreicht jedenfalls Mohs Härte 6 bis 7, und hier wird schon Hartmetall-Werkzeug notwendig, um ihn zu bearbeiten. Ähnlich hart wie Basalt ist dann auch Andesit.

Schlußendlich haben wir noch den Granit mit einer Härte von 7 nach Mohs. Die Bearbeitung von Granit erfolgt in der Regel mit Werkzeugen, die zumindest Korund (Härtegrad 9) oder Diamanten (Härtegrad 10) enthalten, wobei derartige Schleif- und Trennwerkzeuge natürlich auch Gesteine niedrigerer Härte bearbeiten können.

Turkish Travertine
Turkey has vast deposits of a broad spectrum of natural stones, travertine being one of the most popular deposits that are mined all over the country. Turkish travertine is widely admired and valued in the international markets, and the nation supplies some of the most significant quantities of travertine to the world.

Turkish travertine is quite similar to the travertine varieties extracted in Italy and Iran. Travertine has been mined in Turkey since antiquity and used widely in construction, building, decoration and other applications throughout its history. The majority of travertine quarries in Turkey are located in and around Denizli. Turkish travertine is available in several stunning shades and hues, including ivory, walnut, classic, light, medium, yellow, red/pink, silver as well as a dark chocolate colour known as noche.

Turkish travertine is extensively used in both indoor and outdoor applications, including driveway paving, alfresco areas, floor tiling, walls and roofing. Travertine from Turkey is cheaper than other natural stones such as granite, is very durable, and environmentally friendly. Turkey enjoys a soaring global demand for its travertine due to its high quality, affordability, vibrant colours and variety.

Italian Travertine
The largest reserves of travertine stone are found near Trivoli, Italy, which remains the world’s leading supplier of travertine to this day. As travertine is readily found in Italy near valleys, lakes and other water resources, it has served as a common building material throughout the history of the Roman Empire. Italy continued to be the principal supplier and exporter of travertine until the 1980s and held a natural monopoly in the global market.

Roman engineers used travertine extensively in their ambitious construction projects including Roman baths, amphitheatres and aqueducts. In modern times, travertine from Italy has been employed in thousands of construction projects. Italian travertine is known for its long-life, quality and aesthetic value. Travertine from Italy continues to be a prominent construction, décor and façade material, widely used in polished tiled walls, floors, countertops and backsplashes.

Italy is considered the most prestigious supplier of travertine stone, which is why it strictly regulates and controls its international supply. Unlike Turkish travertine, which is cheaper in price, the Italian travertine is a distinctly premium product which is available only in the ultra-luxury market worldwide.

Armenian Travertine
Armenian Travertine is available in a wide range of colours, designs and textures. Travertine in Armenia comes in an easy-grained variety that is formed by the precipitation of calcium carbonate into natural carbon source. Armenian travertine is extensively used in building, construction, decorative and facing purposes as it tends to create an extraordinary beautiful multi-dimensional effect. Travertine from Armenia is also a reliable and aesthetically pleasing natural stone for facing, refurbishing and mesh backing. Armenian travertine is different from Italian and Turkish travertine based on its patterns, styles and shades.

While travertine is quite a pliant and resilient natural stone, it is not entirely immune to damages by natural and non-natural causes such as weather conditions, frequent wear and tears as well as constant footfall. Therefore, you need regular taking care of it to maintain an impeccable appearance.

How Does Travertine Get Damaged?
Some of the travertine impregnators include bacteria, UV exposure, chemicals as well as mould and mildew. Therefore, you must repel water, oil, grout, mortar and bacteria at all times. Similarly, protect travertine surfaces from etching, staining, scratching, mineral deposits and grime build-up overtime.

Tips for Stain Removal
Oil-based stains on travertine can be formed by cooking oil, grease, tar and cosmetics. Clean oil-based stains with a soft liquid cleaner including household detergents, ammonia, mineral spirits or acetone. For organic stains left by coffee, tea, fruit juice, tobacco or urine, mix 12% hydrogen peroxide with just a few drops of ammonia to make your homemade cleaning formula.

Travertine Honing and Polishing
Besides daily care and maintenance, travertine surfaces will need deep cleaning, honing and polishing in between intervals to address any significant damage and spoilage to the stone. These processes will require the assistance of professional technicians and specialized equipment such as vapour steamers and high-speed scrubbing machines.

Dimensions: 189m (long side) and 156m (short side), 48m high

Base Area: 24,000m²

Perimeter: 545m

Capacity: 50,000 – 70,000 (90,000) people

Built for: Vespasian

Material: Travertine

The Colosseum is a Roman Architectural Marvel, commissioned by Emperor Vespasian as a gift for his people of Rome. It was officially opened by Vespasian’s Son Titus with 100 days of games including gladiator wars and wild animal fights. It was named as Flavian Amphitheatre and is still considered as one of the seven wonders of the modern world.

Architecture
The Colosseum is elliptical, measuring approximately 190 by 155 metres. The centre of the arena is an oval, 87m long and 55m wide. Its façade consists of four levels with 80 arches each on the bottom three levels. These arches are the reason that the Colosseum was structurally possible at that time and is still stable.

The interior of the Colosseum provides seating for almost 90,000 spectators. These seatings were based on the social status, with the elite class sitting at the bottom and the lower class at the top farther away from the centre. The Colosseum includes all ancient orders, Doric on the ground floor, Ionic on the second, and the third floor features Corinthian.

Material
The Colosseum is built of travertine limestone, tuff, and brick-faced concrete. The Romans quarried over 100,000 cubic metres of travertine stone for the main structure, pillars, and radial walls of the Colosseum. The same quantity of tuff and brick-faced concrete was also used to improve the elasticity of the whole arena.

Remains
Only one-third of the original structure is still present. Most of it was affected by time, earthquakes, fires, wars, and neglect. Restoration efforts began in the 1990s, and it’s still one of the most popular tourist destinations in the world.